Rihla: Arab Travelers & Travelogues

Jul 25

The word “Rihla” (رحلة) in Arabic means “journey” but has also come to refer to writings about that journey, or what one might call a “travelogue” in English. Over time, Rihla developed into an entire genre of Arabic literature. This kind of writing has deep roots in Islam because travel in the medieval Arab world was intertwined with Hajj. Driving many of these journeys is the medieval Islamic notion of “travel in search of knowledge” (الرحلة في طلب العلم). It is important to note though that not all travels were pilgrimages. Rihla eventually became “one of the main features of Muslim [and Arab] culture in the western part of Dar al Islam…learned people ventured to the eastern lands of Islam… seeking advanced learning in religious matters and spiritual fulfillment.”

So although Mecca and Medina may have been central axes for many of these journeys, medieval Arab travelers strayed much further afield to explore far corners of the world.

Origins of Rihla & Its Literature

Rihla emerged as a literary genre from the 12th century onwards. Born out of al-Andalus and North Africa, the genre was crystallized by the writings of Ibn Jubayr and Ibn Batutta (though there were many travelers that came before them). The “travelogues” that both these travelers produced to reflect upon their journeys brought together personal narratives, anecdotes, opinions and descriptions. Accordingly, this type of writing not only stands strong as a body of literature in its own right, but gives us invaluable insights into the places, societies and customs that the travelers encountered on their way. At the time of writing, these records would have been used as a travel guide by future pilgrims.

Classical Islamic Conceptions of the World

To understand the way that these travelers saw the world and therefore the places to which they traveled, it’s important to know how lands, borders and places were divided in classical Islamic consciousness:

Dar al-Islam / Dar al-Salam

Literally “land of Islam,” denotes places which are governed by Islamic law.

Dar al-Sulh / Dar al-Ahd

Meaning “land of treaty” or “conciliation” and refers to places where Muslim governments had brokered agreements or treaties.

Dar al-Harb

Translates to “land or war” and describes lands that border Dar al-Islam but have not reached an agreement or treaty.

Abu Bakr Ibn al-Arabi

A Muslim judge and scholar of Maliki law from al-Andalus, Abu Bakr Ibn al Arabi was expelled to Morocco during the reign of the Almoravids. From there, he traveled to places including Egypt, Jerusalem, Damascus, Baghdad, Mecca and Medina. On his return to Spain, he wrote a Rihla recounting his travels in the East, thus enshrining and sharing the knowledge he had gained from his time abroad.

Abu Ibn Fadlan

A 10th-century traveler from Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate, Ibn Fadlan traveled with an Abbasid mission to Volga (modern-day Russia) to explain and teach Islam to the recently converted Volga Bulgars. During his travels, he met many different peoples and his Risala, describes in vivid detail his encounters with these various communities, including the Rus Varangians – a group of vikings and the Oghuz Turks.

*An early 20th-century painting depicting Arab trade with the Rus by Sergei Ivanov. Via* *Middle East Eye* *& Wikipedia*

Ibn Jubayr (al-Balansi)

Many sources attribute the rise of the Rihla genre to Ibn Jubayr, who worked as secretary to Abu Sa’id Uthman Abd al-Mu’min, the governor of Granada in al-Andalus. As legend has it, Ibn Jubayr was forced away on his travels after the governor coerced him into drinking seven cups of wine. In exchange, the prince gave him seven cups of gold dinars – enough to fund his swift exit from the court and his long pilgrimage to Mecca. During the resulting two-year journey, Ibn Jubayr “made daily recordings of strange events and places, notable people and customs that he observed when roaming around the medieval East.” He traveled to Cairo, Upper Egypt, Jeddah, Mecca, Medina, Iraq, Syria and Sicily, all of which was detailed in his account Rihlah which was translated to English by RJC Broadhurst in 1952.

Ibn Battuta

Ibn Battuta is perhaps the most well-known medieval traveler. It’s estimated that during his extensive travels, he covered 75,000 miles (120,000 km) in distance. Born in 1304 in Tangier, Ibn Battura was commissioned by Morocco’s Sultan Abu Inan to travel and collect geographical, political and cultural information (Fun fact: Tangier’s airport is named after him).

During his lengthy travels – which spanned more than 25 years – Ibn Battuta visited al-Andalus and what are now Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, Turkey, Southern Russia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, the Maldives, Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, Indonesia and Mali. On his return, Ibn Battuta was commanded to "dictate an account of the cities which he had seen in his travel, and of the interesting events which had clung to his memory, and that he should speak of those whom he had met of the rulers of countries, of their distinguished men of learning, and of their pious saints."

The Sultan of Morocco enlisted Ibn Juzayy to transcribe Ibn Battuta’s accounts and “to fill in gaps in Ibn Battuta's descriptions, [he] borrowed descriptions of Mecca, Medina and Damascus from a 12th-century traveler Ibn Jubayr, and perhaps descriptions of other places from other travelers, too.” The result was “A Masterpiece to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Traveling” (Tuḥfat an-Nuẓẓār fī Gharāʾib al-Amṣār wa ʿAjāʾib al-Asfār). تحفة النظار في غرائب الأمصار وعجائب الأسفار

It is more commonly referred to as Ibn Battuta’s Rihla, and is a melange of his personal memories, hearsay and other people’s anecdotes.

Muhammad as-Saffar

Muhammad Bin Abdellah as-Saffar was a Moroccan Islamic jurist, royal scribe and the author of “Ar-Rihla at-Tetuania Ila ad-Diar al-Faransia”. الرحلة التطوانية إلى الديار الفرنسية

This travelogue was the culmination of as-Saffar’s voyage to France as part of a special diplomatic mission dispatched by the reigning, Sultan Abd al-Rahman, in 1845. He wrote this account specifically for the Sultan who wanted to understand “how the French acquired their power and their mastery over nature; how they led their daily lives, educated their children, treated their women and servants… In short, [he] wanted to know the condition of French civilization and why it differed from his.” This piece of Rihla literature thus gives a unique insight into Moroccan-French relations during the 19th century.

Al-Tijani

Abu Muhammad Abd Allah ibn Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Tijani was an author and traveler during the Hafsid Caliphate. He journeyed between Tunis and Tripoli (Libya) during the 14th century and wrote a detailed Rihla account of his travels. His work contains detailed descriptions of each stop in his journey including references to the topography, history, peoples, and also includes quotes of some poets of Tunis.

Rifa’a al-Tahtawi

An Egyptian writer, educator, and intellectual of the Nahda, Rifa’a al-Tahtawi was one of the first Egyptians to travel to France in the 19th century. He also pioneered thinking about adjusting to encounters with the West on Islamic terms and fostering understanding between Muslim and Christian societies. In 1834, Tahtawi published “Takhlīṣ al-ʾibrīz fī talkhīṣ Bārīz” (The Extrication of Gold in Summarizing Paris), which was a detailed account of his stay in France.